Dr. Charles Barman (1992) SCIENCE, CHILDREN, & LEARNING, School of Ed -- IU - Indianapolis

Dr. Barman is a co-author with dr. leyden on the Addison-Wesley science programs.

The following is a developmental sequence of science process skills. The behavior attributed to the performance of each skill is categorized hierarchically with the most basic proficiency being identified first (item a) and the highest level of proficiency listed last. The chart on the last page illustrates how "most" students would develop each skill if they were provided with the appropriate learning experiences to use these skills at each grade level (N-12).

BASIC SKILLS

1. Skill--Observation

Making observations is fundamental to all learning. Observations are made by using one or more of the five senses. When observations are made to accumulate data from which inferences will be drawn, the precision of the observations is critical. Precision is often improved by making quantitative observations.

Skill Sequence -- The student will be able to:

a. Distinguish differences in physical properties of objects by direct observation.
b. Manipulate or change an object in order to expose its properties.
c. Use instruments to aid the senses in making observations.
d. Make observations (not inferences).
e. Repeat observations as a means of improving reliability.
f. Use measurement as a means of refining observations.
g. Order events chronologically.
h. Identify changes in properties and measure rates of change.
i. Differentiate constants from other variables.
j. Identify correlational changes in variables.

Classification is the grouping or ordering of phenomena according to an established scheme. Objects and events may be classified on the basis of observations. Classificational keys are used to place items within a scheme as well as to retrieve information from a scheme.

Skill Sequence -- The student will be able to:

a. Perceive similarities and differences in a set of objects.
b. Separate a set of objects into two groups according to those that have or do not have a single characteristic.
c. Group a set of objects on the basis of a gross characteristic, such as color or shape, where many identifiable variations are possible.
d. Develop arbitrary one-stage classificational schemes where all included objects of phenomena may be put into mutually exclusive categories.
e. Use quantitative measurements as criteria for grouping.
f. Develop classificational schemes of two or more stages of subsets having mutually exclusive categories.
g. Use an accepted classification system or key to identify objects or phenomena.

An inference is an idea based on an observation or set of observations. Making an inference requires evaluation and judgment based on past experiences. Inferences lead to prediction.

Skill Sequence -- The student will be able to:

a. Demonstrate that inference is based upon observation.
b. Separate pertinent observations upon which given inferences are based from those which are extraneous.
c. Develop an inference from a set of related observations.
d. Develop a series of inferences from a set of related observations
e. State cause-and-effect relationships from observation of related events.
f. Identify limitations of inferences.
g. Develop plans to test the validity of inferences.
h. Use inferences to suggest further observations.
i. Extend inferences to formulate models.

Prediction is the formulation of an expected result based on past experience. The reliability of prediction depends upon the accuracy of past observations and upon the nature of the event being predicted. Prediction is based upon inference. An experiment can verify or contradict a prediction.

Skill Sequence: -- The student will be able to:

a. Distinguish between guessing and predicting.
b. Use repeated observations of an event to predict the next occurrence of that event.
c. Use a series of related observations to predict an unobserved event.
d. Use quantitative measurement as a means of improving the accuracy of predictions.
e. Use interpolation and extrapolation as a means for making predictions.
f. Establish criteria for stating confidence in predictions.

Measuring properties of objects and events can be accomplished by direct comparison or by indirect comparison with arbitrary units which, for purposes of communication, may be standardized.

Skill Sequence -- The student will be able to:

a. Order objects by inspection in terms of selected common properties such as size, shape and weight.
b. Order objects in terms of properties by using measuring devices without regard for quantitative units.
c. Compare quantities such as length, area, volume and weight to arbitrary units. Compare time to units developed from periodic motions.
d. Use standard units for measurements.
e. Select one system of units for all related measurements.
f. Identify measurable physical quantities which can be used in precise description of phenomena.
g. Convert from one system of units to another.
h. Use and devise indirect means to measure quantities.
i. Use methods of estimation to measure quantities.

In order to communicate observations, accurate records must be kept which can be submitted for checking and re-checking by others. Accumulated records and their analysis may be represented in many ways. Graphic representations are often used since they are clear, concise and meaningful. Complete and understandable experimental reports are essential to scientific communication.

Skill Sequence -- The student will be able to:

a. Describe observations verbally.
b. Describe conditions under which observations were made clear.
c. Record observations in a systematic way.
d. State questions and hypotheses concisely.
e. Construct tables and graphs to communicate data.
f. Plan for communication of procedures and results as an essential part of an experiment.
g. Report experimental procedures in a form so other persons can replicate the experiment.
h. Use mathematical analysis to describe interpretations of data to others. Use tables and graphs to convey possible interpretations of data.

7. Skill--Interpreting Data

Interpreting data requires the application of other basic process skills-- in particular, the processes of inferring, predicting, classifying, and communicating. It is through this complex process that the usefulness of data is determined in answering the question being investigated. Interpretations are always subject to revision in the light of new or more refined data.

Skill Sequence -- The student will be able to:

a. Select data pertinent to the question asked.
b. Process raw data to explain trends or relationships.
c. Describe information as it is displayed on tables or graphs.
d. Make and explain inferences from tables or graphs.
e. Set criteria for assessing the validity, precision, and usefulness of data.
f. Compare sets of related data to test the credibility of inferences and generalizations.
g. Select the most acceptable interpretation from multiple interpretations of the same set of data.
h. State criteria for restricting inferences and generalizations to those inferences and generalizations supported by data.

Operational definitions are made in order to simplify communication concerning phenomena being investigated. In making such definitions it is necessary to give the minimum amount of information needed to differentiate that which is being defined from other similar phenomena. Operational definitions may be based upon the observable characteristics of the phenomena and upon the operations to be performed. Operational definitions are precise and, in some cases, based upon mathematical relationships.

Skill Sequence -- The student will be able to:

a. Distinguish between an operational definition and a general description.
b. Select characteristics of phenomena suited to use in an operational definition.
c. State minimal observable characteristics required for an operational definition.
d. Evaluate and modify specific operational definitions.
e. Describe the limitations of operational definitions.
f. Use mathematical relationships in making operational definitions.
g. Formulate operational definitions of experimental parameters such as system boundaries, data gathering procedures and interactions of variables.

Questions are formed on the basis of observations made and usually precede an attempt to evaluate a situation or event. Questions, when precisely stated, are problems to be solved through application of the other processes of science. The formulation of hypotheses depends directly upon questions, inferences and prediction. The process consists of devising a statement which can be tested by experimentation. When more than one hypothesis is suggested by a set of observations, each must be stated separately. A workable hypothesis is stated in such a way that, upon testing, its credibility may be established.

Skill Sequence -- The student will be able to:

a. Answer questions confined to specific observations. b. Separate broad questions into parts which, when answered, will contribute to a comprehensive explanation.
c. Ask questions to state simple hypotheses which can be tested. d. State hypotheses in forms which suggest the variable to be manipulated.
e. Differentiate between hypotheses which must be tested qualitatively and those which can be tested quantitatively.

Experimenting is the process of designing data-gathering procedures as well as the process of gathering data for the purpose of testing an hypothesis. In a less formal sense, experiments may be conducted simply to make observations. However, even here there is a plan to relate cause and effect. In an experiment, variables must be identified and controlled as much as possible. An experimental test of a hypothesis is designed to indicate whether the hypothesis is to be accepted, modified or rejected. In designing an experiment, limitations of method and apparatus must be considered.

Skill Sequence -- The student will be able to:

a. Manipulate materials to make pertinent observations.
b. Identify relevant variables in an experimental situation.
c. Distinguish useful from extraneous data.
d. Maintain an accurate record of experimental procedures and results.
e. Control those variables not part of the hypothesis being tested.
f. Identify sources of experimental error.
g. Describe the limitations of experimental apparatus.
h. Describe the limitations of the experimental design.

Models, whether physical or mental, are devised on the basis of acceptable hypotheses or hypotheses that have yet to be tested. Models are used to describe and explain the interrelationships of ideas. In many cases the model implies new hypotheses; if testing these hypotheses result in new information, the model must be altered to include it.

Skill Sequence -- The student will be able to:

a. Distinguish between models and reality.
b. Construct a physical representation, a drawing or a mental image to explain observed phenomena.
c. Modify existing models to include new observations.

Valuing is a process that integrates several levels of awareness and decision-making. Values are formed when a specific behavior is internalized and incorporated into consistent actions.

Skill Sequence -- The student will be able to:

a. Make choices freely from a list of alternatives after thoughtful consideration.
b. Demonstrate satisfaction of choice by private or public affirmation.
c. Act upon the choice with some repetition.

THE "N" AND "K" GRADE LEVELS INDICATE THE DESIRABILITY OF WORKING WITH SPECIFIC SKILLS PRIOR TO BEGINNING AN EMPHASIS ON CONCEPT DEVELOPMENT. THE ARROWS INDICATE THE RANGE OVER WHICH THE SKILLS SHOULD BE DEVELOPED. THE LETTERS ON THE ARROWS INDICATE SPECIFIC BEHAVIORS AS DESCRIBE IN EACH SKILL SEQUENCE.